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| VIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIBERATION
MOVEMENT |
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| 2. Movement to Protect National Rights
and the Independence Struggle |
| (1) Resistance to Save the Nation by the Righteous Army
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In confronting the Japanese invasion, the Righteous
Army waged a valiant armed struggle against the aggressors.
The Righteous Army began to rise up with the murder of
Myonsong Hwanghu (Queen Min) and the enforcement of the
short hair policy. The Righteous Army was formed in the
tradition of the armed forces that repelled the Hideyoshi
Invasion. The Righteous Army units, under the command
of Yu In-sok and other Confucian scholars, punished the
pro-Japanese bureaucrats and the Japanese throughout the
country.
The Righteous Army, who put down their guns by the order
of the King to disband, waged a full uprising again when
the aggressions by Japan became full-fledged after the
Russo-Japanese War. Under the leadership of Min Chong-sik,
Ch'oe Ik-hyon and Sin Tol-sok, the Righteous Army attacked
the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japan bureaucrats
in the Kangwon, Ch'ungch'ong, Cholla and Kyongsang provinces.
Ch'oe Ik-hyon was captured by the Japanese army and dragged
away to Tsushima Island where he refused to eat the food
given by the Japanese army and finally died as a martyr.
The Righteous Army commander Sin Tol-sok was a commoner,
but his soldiers numbered over 3,000.
The movement to save the nation by the Righteous Army
expanded with the forced abdication of King Kojong and
the disbanding of soldiers, peasants, fishermen, hunters,
miners, merchants, and laborers, embracing all classes
and social strata.
The men of the Righteous Army were united and implemented
an operation to recapture Seoul in 1907.
That is, ten thousand troops under the command of Yi In-yong,
were concentrated in the city of Yangju. They formed 24
units and were organized to recapture Seoul. |
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In order to restore
full sovereign rights, armies of freedom fighters
were formed in numerous locations across the country
and fought against the Japanese imerial army. |
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These soldiers marched as far as 30 Li (standard of
measure for distances; 12km) outside of Seoul but as a
result of counter-offensives by the Japanese, they retreated
and dispersed.
The Japanese mercilessly oppressed members of the Righteous
Army. The Japanese army which had mobilized two army divisions
and even its warship for the purpose of subjugating insurgents,
did not hesitate to burn down villages, massacre and plunder
grain. Thus, in the period between August 1907 and 1909,
over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were massacred and
another 37,000 were injured.
Units of the Righteous Army fleeing from these Japanese
attacks gradually moved into the mountains to wage guerilla
wars. Furthermore, as Japan began to steal the national
rights of Choson and set up a network of oppression via
its gendarme, the Righteous Army of Choson waged wars
of resistance, setting up bases in Manchuria and the Maritime
Province of Siberia.
Among the battles of resistance waged by the Righteous
Army in various places, the patriot An Chung-gun who had
been active in the Maritime Province, assassinated the
mastermind of Japanese aggression, Ito Hirobumi, at a
railroad station, and Chon Myong-un assassinated Stevens,
a pro-Japanese diplomatic advisor in San Francisco. |
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| (2) Enlightenment Movements of Patriotic Organization
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Amid the Russo-Japan War, as Japanese policies of aggression
became more blatant, the harbingers of enlightment developed
a movement to recover the lost national sovereignty by
nurturing nationalist forces. They organized various social
organizations and carried out enlightenment activities
in order to stir up patriotism.
The enlightenment movement developed in two directions.
One was directed toward reviving national commerce with
national capital in order to create a healthy and self-sufficient
economy, and the other was directed toward heightening
the national consciousness and thus revive the educational
basis to build a self-reliant and independent nation.
One of the movements for a self-sufficient economy was
to repay the national debt of 13,000,000 won which the
Japanese government loaned to the Taehan Cheguk in order
to invade it. All nationals participated in this movement
and large amounts were collected, but the movement was
suspended as a result of Japanese suppression.
On the other hand, the harbingers organized a society
called the Sinminhoe (New People's Society) propagated
a nationwide enlightenment movement in various areas of
politics, media, society, culture, and education. The
Taehan Maeil Sinbo, the Hwangsong Sinmun and other newspapers
and publications by various organizations of the time
played an important role in inspiring ideas of self empowerment
and reform among the people. In particular, the thousands
of schools established in the country by leaders of the
enlightenment movement, greatly contributed to the patriotism
of Korean youths.
The enlightenment movement was promoted at a time when
the fate of the nation was dubious, but it was not able
to greatly assist in the recovery of national rights because
of the severity of Japanese oppressions.
However, it is of great significance that many leaders
at that time became the leaders of the anti-Japanese resistance
movement, and the youths who were educated by them grew
up to become the primary force in the national independence
movement. |
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| (3) Establishment of Independence Movement Bases Overseas
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When Japan robbed Korea of its national sovereignty
and established a military government, an independence
movement was nearly impossible at home. The independence
movement carried out their activities at home through
clandestine educational and religious organizations, such
as the Kwangbokhoe.
But at the same time, bases of the independence movements
were set up in Manchuria and the Maritime Province to
carry out a full-fledged resistance movement. Many Koreans
had lived in these areas for a long time, but around 1910,
hundreds of thousands of Koreans emigrated to these areas
to flee Japanese oppression.
The Righteous Army units and the leaders of the enlightenment
movement joined hands in establishing these bases of the
independence movement and made preparations to attack
the Japanese in Korea.
Hong Pom-to was representative of leaders of the Independence
Army unit who carried on the traditions of the Righteous
Army and engaged in the independence struggles in Manchuria
and the Maritime Province. He was a commoner who led a
unit composed of hunters and carried out activities in
the forests of Paektu Mountain. Later when Korea lost
its sovereignty, he led the Righteous Army abroad where
he reinforced his military strength and continuously attacked
the Japanese army crossing the Korean border. |
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Anti-Japanese
freedom fighters and national leaders established
overseas headquarters for the independence movement
and trained future fighters. |
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The representatives of the Sinminhoe, who had led the
patriotic enlightenment movement, also established Korean
villages and trained independence fighters in Manchuria
and the Martime Province of Siberia. Yi Sang-ryong and
Yi Tong-hwi established the majority of nationalist and
military schools in Manchuria and the Maritime Province
where they trained leaders in the independence movement.
They were the main forces in the anti-Japanese Independence
War which was fiercely waged from the early 1920s. |
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| (4) Development of the Independence Movement |
The Independence Movement, which was rising both at
home and abroad, finally exploded into nationwide demonstrations
after the forced abdication of Emperor Kojong. This was
known as the March First Movement.
Because the March First Movement was planned in utmost
secrecy by Son Pyong-hui, Yi Sung-hun, Han Yong-un and
other nationalist leaders, it was not detected by the
intelligence network of the Japanese imperialists. On
March 1,1919 when a declaration of independence was read
in P'agoda Park, countless citizens raised high the T'aeguk
flag and marched into the streets of Seoul as they cried
"Taehan Tongnip Manse (Long Live Korean Independence!)".
During a month after the first outbursts of the Manse
Movement in Seoul, more than two million people participated
in the Independence Manse demonstrations on 1,500 occasions
in 211 counties. The strength of our people's ardent desire
for independence was thus revealed. |
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| After holding a Declaration of
Independence ceremony in T'aehwagwan in Seoul, on
March 1. 1919. all thirty-three national leaders
were arrested |
A contemporary painting of the
Independence Movement at P'agoda Park in Seoul,
March 1. 1919.
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The Japanese imperialists were greatly taken back by
these Independence Manse Movements.
Japan ignored the people's demands and mercilessly suppressed
them by mobilizing police and military forces. At that
time, the number of people slaughtered by Japanese swords
and guns exceeded 7,500, with another 16,000 being wounded
and 47,000 arrested. Seven hundred civilian homes, 47
churches and two schools were reduced to ashes. In particular,
all the inhabitants of a village in Che'am-ni, Suwon were
imprisoned in a church and slaughtered by setting fire
to the church.
As the Japanese imperialists suppressed the peaceful demonstrations
of Koreans, the resistance was only strengthened. As the
Manse demonstrations spread to the country districts,
the farmers who were robbed of their land by the Japanese
took hoes and spades to attack the Japanese Myon offices
and police stations. When peaceful expressions of their
opinions were rejected by the Japanese, they could not
but use violence against the Japanese. |
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| A street demonstration by Korean
female students in March 1919. |
The Declaration of Independence
proclaimed on March 1. 1919. |
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The March First Movement which took place not only at
home but also in Manchuria failed due to Japanese suppression.
Although this movement was unable to bring about independence
immediately, it was an epoch-making event which expressed
the will of the Koreans and their strength to the world.
The March First Movement also laid the groundwork for
unifying the independence movements which were, till then,
dispersed. Thus, the March First Movement developed into
an ideological model for future national independence
movements.
The March First Movement greatly contributed to implanting
a consciousness for national independence not only in
the Korean people but also to the small nations all over
the world. Upon hearing the news of the March First Movement,
China also rose up in its May 4 Movement and, in India
and many other nations in Southwest Asia, movements for
national autonomy sprang up. |
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| (5) Activities of the Provisional Government of the
Republic of Korea |
When the heat of the March First Movement swept across
home and abroad, provisional governments were established
in Seoul, P'yong'an province, Kando, Vladivostok, and
Shanghai. In September 1919, these governments were combined
to establish the Provisional Government of the Republic
of Korea.
This government began with a modern constitution based
on democratic principles and consisted of legislative
(Uijongwon) and executive (Kukmuwon) branches. All of
the nationalist leaders of the independence movement both
at home and abroad participated in these two branches
of government and the Provisional Government of the Republic
of Korea became, in name and reality, the representing
institution for Korea's nationalist independence movement.
Furthermore, Korea had established a democratic government
for the first time in 10 years after losing its rights
as a nation.
The Provisional Government first adopted a system in which
the President was to supervise all affairs of the state,
then through a number of constitutional amendments, a
parliamentary system in which the Prime Minister would
be responsible for administering the affairs of the state
was adopted. During its initial stage, Rhee Syng-man became
the President and then Kim Ku served as the Prime Minister
of the Provisional Government. |
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| The sweeping victory
at Ch'ongsan-li |
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The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
combined the movements at home and abroad and maintained
close relations with the people at home. Through liaison
units which were established in the Korean provinces,
counties and Myons by the Provisional Government in secrecy,
the people were able to participate in the movement providing
funds for its activities.
But, the liaison system was discovered by Japan in 1921
and due to its oppression, was severely weakened.
Many Koreans living abroad also participated in the independence
movement of the Provisional Government. Koreans living
in Japan, the U.S. and China sent funds through diplomatic
organizations set up by the Provisional Government in
these countries or published/distributed information on
the independence movement.
When Japan invaded the Chinese continent, the Provisional
Government moved its office to various other places in
China to continue to carry out its independence activities.
In particular, in 1940, it organized an army (Kwangbok-kun)
in Chungching to make preparations for war. This army
was comprised of young Korean men who were active in Siberia
and China and strengthened its fighting capabilities by
absorbing Choson volunteers as well.
When the Pacific War broke out in 1941, the Provisional
Government ordered the Kwangbok-kun to participate in
the war as a member of the Allied Forces. The Kwangbok-kun
was dispatched to the Indian and Burmese fronts and fought
side by side with the British troops against Japan.
Kwangbok-kun then prepared to wage attacks against Japanese
forces in Korea, but even before the operation for the
recovery of their homeland began, Japan was defeated in
World War II. |
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| (6) The Independence Army's Armed Struggle |
There were some brilliant battles waged during the independence
movement by the independence fighters in Manchuria and
the Maritime Province. By 1910, numerous bases for independence
fighters were already established in these areas and engaged
actively in battle. These units reorganized its ranks
with the March First Independence Movement and the Korean
border to attack Japanese troops in Korea.
The greatest triumphs were reaped by the Taehan Tongnip-kun
under the command of Hong Pom-to and the North Route Army
led by Kim Chwa-jin.
The Taehan Tongnip-kun continued to wage small battles
with the Japanese army in Kando. On
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1920, it encountered a battalion of Japanese troops in
Pong'o-dong, Kando and killed 500 of its troops.
The defeated Japanese mobilized two army divisions and
challenged the Korean troops in its largest battle. The
united forces of Korean armies lured a Japanese regiment
into the valley of Ch'ongsal-li and slaughtered 3,300
of its men in October 1920 within one week.
To revenge the two defeats, Japanese troops made surprise
attacks against the inhabitants of Manchuria. In the attacks,
made during the end of the 1920's, over 10, 000 Korean
people were killed and a dozen Korean villages were burnt.
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The patriot Yun
Pong-gil (1908~1932). On April 29. 1932. in Shanghai,
he was arrested for throwing a bomb at the birthday
ceremony for the Japanese emperor. |
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In spite of the attacks by the Japanese, the armed struggles
of the Independence Army continued. In Manchuria, the
Ch'amuibu, Chonguibu and Sinminbu were organized in order
to administer to the Korean people through the Provisional
Constitutional Government while at the same time perpetrating
guerrilla warfare against the Japanese army.
Such armed resistance continued even after Japan dominated
the territory of Manchuria. However, when Japanese oppression
reached its height in Manchuria, the Korean people relocated
to China and Siberia to continue battles of resistance.
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| (7) Domestic Anti-Japanese Struggles After the March
First Independence Movement |
Students, laborers and farmers also played important
roles in the independence movement. This was quite natural
since the independence movement had an effect on all classes
of people.
In the process of the March First Movement, students took
charge of writing and distributing declarations of independence
and expanded these activities to organize a nationwide
movement. In particular, 400 Korean students residing
in Japan proclaimed a declaration of independence, which
is known as the Declaration of February Eighth, even prior
to the March First Independence Movement. |
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A minor crash
between Korean and Japanese students in Kwangju
on November 3. 1929. expanded into a nationwide
anti-Japanese movement. (Reported in the Dong-A
daily on January 17. 1930.) |
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Such student activities were displayed in the Tongnip
Manse Movement of
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10th (1926) and in the anti-Japanese movement of the Kwangju
students (1929). In the case of the Kwangju Student's
Movement there was an explosion of nationalist feelings,
and citizens participated to develop a nationwide anti-Japanese
movement. Almost all of the schools participated. More
than 3,000 students were either expelled or indefinitely
suspended from school as a result of their activities
in this movement.
As their economic conditions worsened, the labors' and
farmers' anti-Japanese struggles were even more acute.
From 1920, laborers began to form various labor organizations
and waged dozens of labor strikes. The general strike
of the Wonsan dock workers which arose in 1929 was the
most outstanding strike both in terms of its magnitude
and the forms of struggle.
From the 1920's, farmers also formed various farmers'
organizations to resist against the landlords and their
protectors, the Japanese. As a result, in Amt'ae-do, land
rents were lowered for tenant farmers and farmers succeeded
to some extent in achieving some of their other demands.
As the domestic independence movement gradually became
more diverse and economic struggles of laborers and farmers
increased in frequency, the national leaders attempted
to bind such movements into one organized body.
From the early 1920's, when Japan's policy to divide the
Korean people was strengthened, Yi Sang-jae and others
declared the need for national unity in order to achieve
national independence, and formed the Sin'ganhoe (New
Fraternal Society) in 1927 which transcended differences
in ideologies.
The Sin'ganhoe established 140 branches nationwide and
had a membership of 40,000 people, to become the core
of the domestic independence movement until 1931. Sin'ganhoe
also greatly served as a great inspiration to the students,
laborors and tenant farmers on the road to independence.
The spirit of Sin'ganhoe was succeeded by other independence
movements and implanted the idea of transcending differences
in class and ideologies to unite for national liberation.
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